How 'blood gold' is fuelling conflict in West Africa
“血金”如何加剧西非的冲突
2 days ago Share Save Jacob Boswall BBC Monitoring Share Save
2天前分享节省Jacob Boswall BBC监控共享保存
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It has been a good year for gold. A host of turbulent events in the global economy has driven up prices for the glittery commodity to record highs in 2025. In a world of tariffs and international conflict, gold appeals to investors as one of the few remaining stable assets. Everyone wants a piece of the action, from central banks to large institutions like hedge funds, and retail investors. But few know where their gold comes from, or much about the conflicts it may be fuelling in the countries where it is mined. For the governments of West Africa's Sahel region, the stakes are even higher. Gold is a lifeline for the military juntas of Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger, who are beleaguered by jihadist insurgencies, regional isolation, and the ravages of climate change."Because gold prices have been at a historic high… the military governments are hoping that they will be able to benefit directly," Beverly Ochieng, a senior researcher at global consultancy firm Control Risks, told the BBC. Together, the three Sahel states produce around 230 tonnes of gold per year, according to the World Gold Council's estimates, or about $15bn (£11bn) at the current market rate. A lack of records for artisanal and small-scale gold mining means that this figure is probably an underestimate. The combined gold production in these three states surpasses any other country in Africa, making the Sahel region a major global contributor to the gold market. The governments say that the proceeds from the lucrative sector are benefitting citizens through increased"sovereignty" - though Russian firms are increasing their stake in the industry at the expense of Western-owned firms. For example, Mali's junta leader Gen Assimi Goïta laid the foundation stone last month for a gold refinery, in which a Russian conglomerate, the Yadran Group, will have a minority stake. The refinery will reportedly create 500 direct jobs and 2,000 indirect jobs. Burkina Faso is also building its first-ever gold refinery, and has set up a state-owned mining company, requiring foreign firms to give it a 15% stake in their local operations and to transfer skills to Burkinabé people. Fake AI media campaigns have even been launched to celebrate the country's charismatic 37-year-old military ruler Capt Ibrahim Traoré for commanding such an important revenue stream for the nation."Mining gold from deepest dirt. But souls are rich and true," croons an AI-generated Rihanna in one recent song, pouring her silky, auto-tuned praise on Capt Traoré. The reality is very different, according to Ms Ochieng, who explained that Burkina Faso and its neighbours need quick cash to fund counterinsurgency campaigns. In the case of Mali, much of this has been outsourced to Russian mercenaries, including the Wagner Group and its successor, Africa Corps, which falls under the command of Russia's defence ministry. Africa Corps has been involved in military training in Burkina Faso, but the junta officially denies its presence.
对于黄金来说，这是美好的一年。全球经济中的许多动荡事件都推动了闪闪发光的商品在2025年创下高潮的价格。在关税和国际冲突的世界中，黄金吸引了投资者，这是剩下的少数稳定资产之一。每个人都希望采取行动，从中央银行到对冲基金等大型机构，再到零售投资者。但是，很少有人知道他们的黄金来自哪里，或者在开采的国家 /地区可能引起的冲突。对于西非萨赫勒地区的政府，赌注甚至更高。黄金是布基纳法索，马里和尼日尔军队军政府的生命线，他们受到圣战叛乱，区域隔离和气候变化的破坏所困扰的。全球咨询公司控制风险的高级研究员贝弗利·奥基恩（Beverly Ochieng）告诉英国广播公司：“因为黄金价格一直处于历史性的高度……军事政府希望他们能够直接受益。”根据世界黄金委员会的估计，这三个萨赫勒州每年每年生产约230吨黄金，约为15亿美元（110亿英镑）。缺乏手工和小规模金矿开采的记录，这意味着这个数字可能被低估了。这三个州的黄金产量超过了非洲的任何其他国家，使萨赫勒地区成为黄金市场的主要全球贡献者。政府说，利润丰厚的部门的收益通过增加的“主权”使公民受益 - 尽管俄罗斯公司正在以牺牲西方拥有的公司为代价，以增加其在该行业的股份。例如，马里（Mali）的军政府领导人阿米米·戈塔（Gen ApsimiGoïta）上个月为一家金炼油厂奠定了基础，其中俄罗斯企业集团（Yadran Group）将拥有少数股份。据报道，炼油厂将创造500个直接工作岗位和2,000个间接工作。布基纳法索（Burkina Faso）也正在建造有史以来的第一个炼油厂，并成立了一家国有矿业公司，要求外国公司将其在本地业务中占有15％的股份，并将技能转移到Burkinabé人民。伪造的AI媒体运动甚至是为了庆祝该国有超凡魅力的37年军事统治者伊布拉希姆·特拉雷（IbrahimTraoré）的魅力，以指挥全国这么重要的收入来源。“从最深的污垢中挖掘金。但是灵魂是丰富而真实的，”克罗恩斯在最近的一首歌中添加了蕾哈娜（Rihanna），在特拉雷上尉上倾诉了她丝般柔滑的自动调整的赞美。奥奇女士表示，现实情况大不相同，他解释说，布基纳法索及其邻居需要快速现金来资助平叛活动。就马里而言，其中大部分已将其外包给俄罗斯雇佣军，其中包括瓦格纳集团及其继任者非洲军团，该军受到俄罗斯国防部的指挥。非洲军团曾在布基纳法索（Burkina Faso）参加军事训练，但军政府正式否认其存在。
RIA Novosti / Anadolu / Getty Images Russia's President Vladimir Putin and Burkina Faso's Ibrahim Traoré have built a strong relationship
Ria Novosti / Anadolu / Getty Images俄罗斯总统弗拉基米尔·普京（Vladimir Putin）和布基纳法索（Burkina Faso）的易卜拉欣·特拉雷（IbrahimTraoré）建立了牢固的关系
Although public spending transparency in the countries is poor, the governments are thought to devote large portions of their budgets to national security. Military spending in Mali trebled since 2010, amounting to 22% of the national budget by 2020. The governments are fighting jihadist groups linked to al-Qaeda and Islamic State (IS). But campaign group Human Rights Watch (HRW) has accused the Malian government and the Wagner Group of committing atrocities against civilians, including unlawful killings, summary executions, and torture. It has documented similar atrocities by Burkina Faso's military and its allied militias. For their services, the Wagner Group and now Africa Corps are often paid directly in gold or in mining concessions, according to Alex Vines of the London-based Chatham House think-tank."Very little [of the gold revenues] will trickle down to Malians and Burkinabés," he told the BBC, adding that in fact the armed insurgents themselves may be benefiting from gold. Since the coup in Mali in 2021, brutal government tactics against communities suspected of harbouring or sympathising with jihadists have increased, pushing more civilians to join the very groups they are fighting. Jamaat Nusrat al-Islam wal-Muslimin (JNIM), an al-Qaeda affiliate which is the most active jihadist group in the region, staged an unprecedented number of attacks targeting Burkina Faso military during the first half of 2025, a sign of the group's growing strength. The armed groups are also literally cashing in on the increased global appetite for gold. A large proportion of gold mining in the Sahel is from the artisanal and small-scale sector, which is often informal, meaning it takes place on unlicensed and undeclared sites away from government oversight, according to a 2023 report on gold mining in the Sahel by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Armed groups, including jihadist groups, and Sahel governments are in competition for control over many of these small-scale gold mines. Gold provides an important revenue stream for militant groups, which appear to be expanding their territorial influence in both Mali and Burkina Faso. The UNODC believes that most gold from this type of mining ends up in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), a global centre for gold refining and trading."You do see overlap of violent extremist groups moving onto artisanal production areas for control," said Dr Vines. The global spike in gold prices may be prolonging and exacerbating conflict in the Sahel - but, unfortunately for the diggers in artisanal gold mines, it has not led to owners increasing their wages.
尽管这些国家的公共支出透明度很差，但政府被认为将其预算的大部分投入到国家安全上。自2010年以来，马里的军事支出已达到了2020年的国家预算的22％。政府正在与与基地组织和伊斯兰国（IS）相关的圣战组织作斗争。但是竞选组织人权观察（HRW）指责马里政府和瓦格纳集团对平民犯下暴行，包括非法杀人，摘要处决和酷刑。它记录了布基纳法索军队及其盟军民兵的类似暴行。根据伦敦的查塔姆豪斯（Chatham House）智囊团的亚历克斯·维斯（Alex Vines）的说法，为他们的服务，瓦格纳集团和现在的非洲军团通常是直接以黄金或采矿特许权支付的。他告诉英国广播公司：“（黄金收入中的很少的收入）会滴入马里安人和汉堡。”实际上，实际上，武装叛乱分子本身可能会从黄金中受益。自2021年马里政变以来，对涉嫌藏匿或同情圣战分子的社区的残酷政府策略有所增加，促使更多的平民加入他们正在战斗的团体。Jamaat Nusrat Al-IslaT Wal-Muslimin（JNIM）是该地区最活跃的圣战组织的基地组织分支机构，在2025年上半年，针对Burkina Faso Moriest的攻击数量是前半段，这是该小组增长的力量的迹象。武装团体也从字面上兑现了全球对黄金的需求。萨赫勒（Sahel）中的大部分黄金开采来自手工和小规模的行业，这通常是非正式的，这意味着它发生在联合国关于毒品和犯罪（unodc）的联合国办公室的2023年关于萨海尔省的金矿开采的报告。包括圣战组织和萨赫勒政府在内的武装团体正在竞争控制许多这些小型金矿。Gold为激进组织提供了重要的收入来源，这似乎正在扩大他们在马里和布基纳法索的领土影响力。犯罪问题办公室认为，这种采矿中的大多数黄金最终都在阿拉伯联合酋长国（阿联酋），这是全球黄金炼油和贸易中心。Vines博士说：“您确实会看到暴力极端主义团体重叠，搬到手工生产区以进行控制。”萨赫勒（Sahel）的全球黄金价格上涨可能是延长和加剧冲突 - 但不幸的是，对于手工黄金矿山的挖掘者来说，这并没有导致所有者增加工资。
Afrikimages Agency / Universal Images Group / Getty Images As jobs are scarce, many people work in the informal mining sector
Afrikimages Agency / Universal Images Group / Get Tomage随着工作很少，许多人在非正式采矿领域工作
One gold miner in Mali's northern Kidal region agreed to respond to written questions from the BBC on condition of anonymity, for fear of his safety. He estimated that, on a"good day", he earns 10,000 to 20,000 CFA francs, or approximately $18 to $36 (£13 to £26). The amount he is paid has not increased alongside global gold prices, he said."Prices went up, but the extra profit goes to mine owners… It's risky and uncertain, but for many of us, it's the only option," he added. Dr Vines, who formerly worked as a blood diamond investigator for the UN, is concerned that gold has become Africa's new main conflict commodity. He noted that gold has not received the same international attention as diamonds, which fuelled bloodshed in several African states throughout the 20th Century, especially during the 1990s. Intervention by human rights groups and the UN led to the establishment of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme in 2003, which did much to end the sale of so-called"blood diamonds" on the open market. But attempts to crack down on"blood gold" have been less successful. This is partly due to a lack of unified ethical standards. The London Bullion Market Association (LBMA), a major authority in the gold market, requires refiners to comply with standards based on guidelines set by a global body, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OED). The UAE's enforcement of these regulations has historically been patchy. In 2021, the country announced its own standards for ethical gold mining - however, the framework remains voluntary. The issue of enforcement has caused tensions in the past between the Gulf state and the LBMA. Tracing technology represents another hurdle."There is no 'DNA testing' for gold. With a lot of effort, you can trace diamonds before they get polished and cut… But I haven't seen ways of tracing the origins of a gold nugget," Dr Vines said. Gold is smelted early on in the value chain, making it nearly impossible to trace and connect to potential conflict zones, he explained. Dr Vines believes that it is likely that some blood gold from the Sahel ends up in UK markets."[Gold] gets smelted in [the] UAE, then goes onto the jewellery manufacturing industry, or into dentistry, or bullion. Some of it clearly comes into the UK. And once it is here, there is no way of testing what it is." A UAE official told the BBC that the country had"a robust regulatory framework to maximize the security, integrity and transparency of every gold transaction, supported by rigorous enforcement actions". The UAE's processes were in line with, and in some areas exceeded, OECD guidelines, the official said, adding:"They are supported by mandatory anti-money-laundering and know-your-customer procedures, annual audits and full enforcement at all points of entry." Dr Vines said that another reason that it will be difficult to repeat the successes of the Kimberley process is because the certification system was not designed to deal with state governments."Kimberley was designed to deal with armed non-state actors in places like Sierra Leone and Liberia," he said. For now, gold's importance for Sahel governments and the patchy enforcement of ethical gold standards mean that the commodity is likely to continue changing hands, regardless of its origin. Unfortunately for some communities in the Sahel, that may mean paying for the trade in blood.
马里北部基地地区的一名矿工同意在匿名状态下回答英国广播公司的书面问题，因为他担心他的安全。他估计，在“美好的一天”中，他的收入为10,000至20,000 cfa francs，约为18至36美元（13至26英镑）。他说，他所付的金额与全球黄金价格并没有增加。他补充说：“价格上涨，但额外的利润归功于我的所有者……这是有风险和不确定的，但对于我们许多人来说，这是唯一的选择。”Vines博士以前曾担任联合国血液钻石调查员，他担心黄金已成为非洲的新主要冲突商品。他指出，黄金没有受到与钻石相同的国际关注，钻石在整个20世纪，尤其是在1990年代的非洲几个州都引起了流血的影响。人权团体和联合国的干预导致2003年建立了金伯利流程认证计划，该计划在公开市场上终止了所谓的“血钻”的销售。但是试图打击“血金”的尝试并不那么成功。这部分是由于缺乏统一的道德标准。伦敦金条市场协会（LBMA）是黄金市场上的主要权威，要求炼油厂根据全球机构，经济合作与发展组织（OED）制定的指南遵守标准。阿联酋对这些法规的执行历史上是零散的。2021年，该国宣布了自己的道德黄金开采标准 - 但是，该框架仍然是自愿的。过去的执法问题在过去的墨西哥湾州和LBMA之间引起了紧张关系。追踪技术代表了另一个障碍。Vines博士说：“没有'DNA测试'用于黄金。付出了很多努力，您可以在钻石得到抛光之前进行追踪……但是我还没有看到追踪金矿的起源的方法。”他解释说，黄金在价值链的早期就被冶炼了，几乎不可能追踪并与潜在的冲突区域建立联系。Vines博士认为，萨赫勒（Sahel）的一些血黄金可能最终进入英国市场。“ [黄金]在阿联酋被冶炼，然后进入珠宝制造业，或进入牙科或金条。其中有些显然进入了英国。一旦到了这里，就无法测试它是什么。”一位阿联酋官员告诉英国广播公司，该国具有“强大的监管框架，以最大程度地提高每项金交易的安全性，完整性和透明度，并受到严格的执法行动的支持”。这位官员说，阿联酋的过程与OECD指南相符，并且在某些领域超过了，并补充说：“在所有入境方面，都有强制性的反罚款和了解您的客户审计程序，年度审计和全面执行的支持。”Vines博士说，重复金伯利进程的成功是另一个原因是因为认证系统并非旨在与州政府打交道。他说：“金伯利的设计目的是在塞拉利昂和利比里亚等地方与武装的非国家演员打交道。”就目前而言，黄金对萨赫勒政府的重要性以及对道德黄金标准的零散执行意味着，无论其起源如何，商品都可能继续易手。不幸的是，对于萨赫勒（Sahel）的某些社区而言，这可能意味着要支付血液贸易。
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